Persevering Literature Essay -- essays research papers

The novel Sense and Sensibility was truly a masterpiece. Written by Jane Austen this ironic love story has captured the heart of readers for years. The popularity of Austen as a novelist can now be experienced through film. This book has been adapted into various screenplays, including one by Emma Thompson. Another version of the film was through with(p) by the BBC. Perhaps it is the manner in which it was filmed, the character choices or other aspects of the films that make them so different. Though they are based upon the same novel it is to be sure that the Emma Thompson version will preserve Austens talent in the world of film.      The Emma Thompson version can be well spoken of in that its superlative strength is its ability to preserve and communicate the subtleties of womens life two centuries ago, of human feelings, of passion and reserve, and of wit and irony which are so essential in Austens books. The celluloid is, therefore, a rather profound piec e of work, which shows a great deal of devotion to it on the part of those involved in its making. Every detail (scenery, costumes, end "accessories", etc.) is carefully considered and is an integral part of the whole, so one watching it really has the feeling of being carried back to the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries.     Though the preferably version done by the BBC is much longer and truer to the novel it is with great pains. The acting is rather stiff as is the di...

Symbolism In The Veil Essay -- Nathaniel Hawthorne

Symbolism In The buryThe enshroud that the take care wears in The Ministers Black Veil, by Nathanial Hawthorne represents the emphasis on mans inner reality, and those thoughts and feelings which are not immediately obvious. As Hawthorne explored this inner nature, he found the source of dignity and virtue, and certain elements of darkness. When the minister first walks out of his home wearing the veil, every ace is astonished. This one man in this village decides to be a nonconformist and wear this veil without explanation. No one understands why the minister would wear such a veil for no reason at all. This is where all the assumptions begin to linger. All of the villagers have a baloney for why the veil is there. These large number are not trying to understand it. These villagers are well(p) trying convince themselves that the veil is hiding something, like a deformation of the ministers face. Others think that Mr. Hooper is hiding something else, like a secret no on e is supposed to know about. This black veil conflicts with everyone in the village in some way. Is this veil a problem only because everyone is afraid of what they might be hiding? Perhaps this veil is a symbol of the mistrust Mr. Hooper has to those peck closest to him or maybe he is trying to show this society that there is a greater lesson to be learned from this black veil than just an apparent oneThat mysterious emblem was never once withdrawn. It shook with his measured breath as he gave out the psalm it through its reconditeness between him and the holy page, as he read the scriptures Did he seek to hide it from the dread Being whom he was addressing? (1281)After seeing the black veil upon the face of Mr. Hooper, every person in the villag... ... tremble at me alone? Tremble also at each other Have men avoided me, and women shown no pityonly for my black veil? What, but the mystery which it obscurely typifies, has made this piece of crape so awful? When the frie nd shows his inmost spirit to his friendwhen man does not vainly shrink form the eye of his Creator, loathsomely treasuring up the secret of his sin then deem me a monster, for the symbol under which I have lived, and die I look around me, and lo On every visage a black veil (1288-89) The black veil is a symbol, something that Hawthorne uses to stand for the blocked wall between all human souls. Hawthorne is simply suggesting that every person wears his own black veil. On the other hand, if people are willing to acknowledge the darkness in themselves, there will come a time when everyone shall set aside their veils.

The Impact of European Diseases in the New World Essay -- American Ame

The Impact of European diseases in the New World If science has taught us anything, it is that one event invariably effects eternal others. This is no more evident than when a species is introduced into a new environment. Once a foreign species finds itself in new surroundings, it can either die or adapt. Often, these introduced species take over the environment, irrevocably changing it to fit their needs. This usually leads to a serious deteriorating in the well being of species currently existing there. Such is the good example as when the Europeans introduced themselves to the New World. The new arrivals not only brought themselves, their technologies, and ways of life, but, most disastrously, their affections arrived as well. When the Europeans crossed the Atlantic, they not only fought and killed many natives they slaughtered countless more without even knowing it, signing the death warrants of millions simply by meeting . The real detrimental effect to the Indians was their exposure to the diseases inadvertently brought over by the colonists these most repulsive(a) enemiesinvisible killers which those men brought in their blood and breath. (Stannard, xii) The effect of these diseases in the New World (and in fact, many diseases have in general) is rather ironic. The pathogens that cause disease are not out to kill anything, quite the opposite. The whole purpose for anything existing in this world is to pass its genetic material on to offspring. This thought is called fitness. For an organism to be optimally fit, it must survive so it can successfully multiply as often as it can, creating numerous kin so that its genes will live on generations past its own death. For viruses to live, they need a host. They infect an org... ...Stannard, David, E. 1992. American Holocaust Columbus and the Conquest of the New World. Oxford University Press. 385pp Cowley, Geoffrey. 1992. The Great Disease Migration. Newsweek. Fall/Winter, vol. 118. Pg. 54(3) Crosby, Alfr ed, W. 1986. Ecological Imperialism. Cambridge University Press. 368pp Meltzer, David J. 1992. How Columbus sickened the New World. New Scientist, Oct. 10. Vol.136, pg.38 (4) Linton, Alan. 1982. Microbes, Man and Animals The Natural History of Microbial Interactions. John Wiley & Sons. 342pp Sale, Kirkpatrick. 1991. The Conquest of Paradise Christopher Columbus and the Columbian Legacy. Plume. 453pp. Unknown, disclose Staff. 1996. The origin of Syphilis. Discover. October. Vol. 17, n10, pg23 (3) Glick, J, Schaffer, C. 1991. The Indian Homeland. U.S. News and World Report. July 8, vol.111, n2, pg26 (6)

Ancient Summerian Mythology :: essays research papers

Term Paper- Ancient Sumeria/BabylonOne of the many ancient civilizations that direct to be clarified is ancient Sumeria. Sumer was an ancient region in southern Mesopotamia, located in the extreme southeastern part of what is now Iraq. The land of Sumer was most devoid of human occupants until about 5000 BC, when settlers moved into the swamps at the head of the Persian Gulf and gradually spread northward up the lower Tigris-Euphrates Valley. Although the Sumerians as battalion disappeared, their language and literature continued to influence the religion of their successors. Their basic economic organization and system of writing cuneiform, architectural forms, and legal practices remained in use. Later generations exposit upon the mathematics and astronomy that the Sumerians had originated. (Beret 113.)Almost every culture or ancient civilization has a flowage story. For example, in the Old Testament, there was a flood story that lasted forty days and forty nights. In the Sum erian civilization, there is a flood story as well. The motive for the flood story in the Old Testament is similar to the motive in the flood story in the Sumerian culture. This motive was to punish the wickedness of men. The flood happened in a city called Shurrupak. It stands on the bank of the Euphrates River. The city grew old and the immortals that were in it grew old. The city was in an uproar and the god Enlil heard the clamor and he said to the god in the council, The uproar of mankind is intolerable and sleep is no longer possible by reason of the babel. (Bailey 59.) The gods decided to exterminate mankind. For sixer days and six nights the winds blew, torrent and tempest and flood overwhelmed the world, tempest and flood raged together like warring hosts. (Bailey 57.) Even the gods were terrified at the flood, they fled to the highest heaven, the firmament of Anu. In Babylonian civilizations, a god is responsible for reasoning and wisdom. This god of wisdom is Enki. Enki receives his power from the resources and fertility of the land. The myth of Inanna and the god of wisdom begins with Inanna delighting in her womanhood and wishing to test its powers. In this myth, Inanna goes on a journey. Inanna sets out to visit Enki, the god of Wisdom, who is also the god of Waters. In Sumerian, Enki means the god of the Earth.

A Clockwork Orange by Anthony Burgess :: essays research papers

A Clockwork Orange by Anthony Burgess     Anthony Burgess is a genuinely strange author. He had a really weird vision of the future. I feel he did a great job describing his viewpoint. Anthony Burgess is not whole a novelist, he also has written several plays, and even composed a few symphonies. He was born in 1917, and died in 1991. He introductoryly published "A Clockwork Orange" in the U.S. in 1962 and initially it had 20 chapters, one less than he had written. The version I read was reprinted in 1986 with that last, twenty-first chapter.     The main character, Alex, and his three friends thought they were indestructible. All they did every night was go around picking fights, drinking, and stealing. One night his friends sold him out and beat him up, deviation him to get caught by the police. Alex was wanted for many crimes that he had committed but they had never caught him before. After 2 years of jail they gave Alex the opti on to have an observational treatment to get him out of jail early. The treatment was that they had to pump Alex full of drugs and show him movies of bad things to make him feel sick when he thought of committing embezzled crimes. They released him after the treatment, only to get beat up even worse by his old enemies. He was put venture into the hospital, they realized what they had done was wrong, and they changed him back to normal.The time period the watchword was written in is 2010, which was very far in the future in 1962. The author must have thought that the realism would have changed a lot more than it has because the world he wrote about is very different than how it really is and will be by 2010. Burgess wrote this book in a futuristic language he thought would fit the time period. The book was pretty hard to figure out at first because of this, but by using context clues it became easier after the first chapter.

A Clockwork Orange by Anthony Burgess :: essays research papers

A Clockwork Orange by Anthony Burgess     Anthony Burgess is a very strange author. He had a really preternatural vision of the future. I feel he did a great job describing his viewpoint. Anthony Burgess is not only a novelist, he also has written several(prenominal) plays, and even composed a few symphonies. He was born in 1917, and died in 1991. He first published "A Clockwork Orange" in the U.S. in 1962 and initially it had 20 chapters, one less than he had written. The version I read was reprinted in 1986 with that last, 21st chapter.     The main character, Alex, and his three friends thought they were indestructible. All they did both night was go around picking fights, drinking, and stealing. One night his friends sold him out and beat him up, leaving him to get caught by the police. Alex was wanted for many crimes that he had committed but they had never caught him before. After 2 years of jail they gave Alex the option to have an experimental interposition to get him out of jail early. The treatment was that they had to pump Alex full of drugs and show him movies of bad things to make him feel sick when he thought of committing illegal crimes. They released him later the treatment, only to get beat up even worse by his old enemies. He was put back into the hospital, they realized what they had done was wrong, and they changed him back to normal.The time period the book was written in is 2010, which was very far in the future in 1962. The author must have thought that the creation would have changed a lot more than it has because the world he wrote about is very different than how it really is and will be by 2010. Burgess wrote this book in a futuristic language he thought would fit the time period. The book was pretty hard to figure out at first because of this, but by using context clues it became easier after the first chapter.

Lexicogrammar Essay

Modality refers to the expression of speakers opinion or attitude towards the proposition that the prison term expresses or the situation that the proposition describes, or the speakers judgment of the likelihood of the proposition being true. While modal auxiliaries are helping words, functioning as helpers to make up verb phrases, they are prohibited from being used independently. The present pedagogy attempts to conduct a corpus-based study on terce modal auxiliaries should, ought to and mustiness with regard to their collocations, colligations, as well as semantic features in Chinese learners oral productions.This study reveals that Chinese learners overused should and must a great deal as compared against the primal speaker data, while they used ought to much less(prenominal) frequently than homegrown speakers. As for collocations, the observed frequencies of the collocates of these three modal auxiliaries, as shown in the devil corpora, are different, but those frequent ly co-occurring words of the three modal verbs, as have appeared in the two sets of dataare more or less the same.Key Words Deontic modal meaning, Epistemic modal meaning, Contrastive Inter nomenclature Analysis, Colligation, Semantic features, nativelikenessmodal auxiliariesIntroduction Medals, known as small words, perform circumstance functions in both written and oral communication. This thesis is devoted to an analysis of three modal auxiliaries, namely should, ought to and must. It aims to find out how Chinese learners use these three medals and their differences from native speakers in four aspects frequency, collocation, colligation and semantic features.Significance Modal auxiliaries belong to a group of small words yet performing ill-tempered functions. Present study may be of some(prenominal) help in two ways. Firstly, it may help students notice their shortcomings in using those modal auxiliaries compared with native speakers and think over the reasons, thus to help t hem improve their communication ability. Secondly, it may provide teachers with some implications for language teaching, raising their awareness of the importance of natural and unquestionable language resources in teaching and interrogation, and encouraging them to use more effective teaching methods to help students with their English learning. It is also hoped that the results of this study volition shed some light on the common problems of the use of modality in EFL speaking environment.Purpose English modal auxiliaries play an important role in language communicationas well as in second language acquisition. The study aims to provide some useful information for English learning, teaching and research. We will investigate and describe the characteristics of the collocations, colligations and semantic features. This study also aims to find out some causes of the differences between the two target groups of English-users uses of three chosen modals in their speeches. It is hope d that the findings of this study will give a deep understanding of how frequently the three modal auxiliaries are used by Chinese EFL speakers and contribute to the teaching and teaching reforms in the future. This thesis will probe into these issues through Contrastive Intedanguage Analysis.In the whole study, the following major questions are to be addressed 1. Is there nativelikeness shown in the speakers representation of the four modal auxiliaries will would, shall and should, their related chunks with not, have and of their related tenses and subjunctive mood by EFL speakers and L2 speakers? 2. What are the problems found in Chinese EFL speakers in their learning the four modal auxiliaries will would, hall, and should, their related chunks with nothave and of their related tenses and subjunctive mood as a result of the comparison with those of L2 speakers and native speakers from a quantitative perspective? If anywhat are the possible causes of the found problems? 3. What is the tense and subjunctive mood distribution of the four modal auxiliaries used by Chinese EFL speakers in contrast with native speakers as a result of the qualitative analysis?Structure The present dissertation falls into 5 chapters direction on the listed research questions 1. Introduction significance, purpose, questions to be answered, how the idea is originated, sketches out the outline 2. Definitions of key terms to describing the theoretical foundations, reviews, set up the main framework 3. depicts research design (data and instruments), methodology, procedures 4. main body, negative forms, affirmative forms, contracted forms, original forms, future tenses and subjunctive mood, results(quality and quantity) 5. conclusion, major findings presents pedagogical implications and limitations of the study, suggestions

Knowledge gap

The knowledge gap hypothesis presumes that you will know more active these results than people whose educational train is lower than yours, even if the topics dont directly concern your everyday life. -Stated by Telephone, Donahue and Alien in their 1970 article they said the population Is divided Into two distinct segments a group of better educated people who know more about most things and those with low education who know less. Low Socio-economic status (SEES) atomic number 18 moderately defined by education level but also have little or no knowledge about Public affairs issues, are disconnected from news events and Important new discoveries, and usually arent concerned about their lack of knowledge. High Socio-Economic Status Are the opposite of Low SEES Public personal matters issues -According to the knowledge gap theory most people gain knowledge as a topic becomes more heavily covered by the aggregative media, but the higher educated segment of the population will gain more knowledge.Knowledge gap says nothing about the individuals innate intelligent, the theory is just saying that high-educated people have several advantages. Such as 1. A greater level of stored knowledge on a variety of topics. 2. Better aid, comprehension, retention, and greater parley skills. 3. More reliance on the information-oriented print media rather than the entertainment-oriented non-profit media 4. Greater numbers of relevant social contacts or friends who are likely to be knowledgeable about and discuss pubic affairs topics. Low SEES can be called Medal Poor -High SEES can be called Media Rich Programmatic Research- is research that builds on itself, where one necessitate outcomes raise questions and other researchers take up the challenge to answer. Points that might reduce the knowledge gap 1 . The type of issue, especially an issue that really gets peoples attention 2. The size and type of community small, rural, homogeneous areas have lower gaps clues wi th pluralistic subcultures have higher gaps. 3. Owe much and what type of media coverage a topic gets cigarettes link to cancer is constantly in the news (lower gaps) Sexual harassment incidents get intense but in conformable coverage (Higher gaps) 4. An Issues level of conflict such as police brutality (lower gap) vs.. Covers about urban revitalization (higher gaps) 3 early concepts explored 1 . Socio-economic deficits 2. Differences -sasss Interest in topics became the primary research. Print Media is more edifying than TV.High SEES group still watches newscast -sasss centreed on health, environment, and new technology. Communication campaigns became designed to educated or persuade and television interest increased. Politics became a focus -Higher SEES use Schemata. Chapter 27 principle of relative constancy -Charles Scripps 1959 released economic report of media. -Macombs used the observations from Scripps to offer a theory called the Principle of Relative Constancy. Some of his predictions were 1 . The proportion of money, viewed as a part of the gross national product(GNP), spent on the mass media remains fairly constant over time. The Constancy aspect. 2. Because the parsimony varies from boom to depression, the GNP also will vary. The relative part of the theory. 3. Because the expenditures on mass media are relatively constant, new media must fight it out with be media. This is the functional equivalence part.Chapter 28 market-gardening -The media-culture connection got its first great push from the Payne stock studies in the asses and asses, an investigation of the impact of movies on young people. Payne Fund Findings -George Greener Violence index -Grinners definition of violence the overt expression of physical force (with or thou a weapon, against self or others) compelling activity against ones will on pain of being hurt and or killed or threatened to be so victimized as part of the plot. Cultivate -Two types of Cultivation -Ma instreaming a relative commonalty of outlooks that television tends to cultivate Resonance -suggest the power of television to influence popular imagery increases when seen on the screen resonates with the viewer seems consistent with experience it is more likely incorporated into the persons notion of reality.

Management Information Systems in Process-Oriented Healthcare Organisations

Linkoping Studies in Science and Technology Thesis No. 1015 circumspection tuition Systems in Process-oriented tumefyness accusation Organisations by Anna Andersson Submitted to the School of Engineering at Linkoping University in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Licentiate of Philosophy Department of Computer and discipline Science Linkopings universitet SE-581 83 Linkoping, Sweden Linkoping 2003 Management Information Systems in Process-oriented health care Organisations by Anna Andersson Maj 2003 ISBN 91-7373-654-6 Linkopings Studies in Science and Technology Thesis No. 015 ISSN 0280-7971 LiU-Tek-Lic-200314 ABSTRACT The aim of this thesis consort was to break a succeedment instruction scheme dumbfound for influence-oriented health care organisations. The lease explores two questions What kinds of requirements do healthcare managers backside on education dodgings? and How tummy the fail and development systems of healthcare managers and care providers be combine into process-oriented healthcare organisations? The background to the memorize was the process orientation of Swedish healthcare organisations.The study was conducted at the paediatric clinic of a county hospital in southern Sweden. Organisational process was defined as a sequence of organiseplace procedures that jointly constitute complete healthcare bene become, while a serviceable building block was the organisational venue responsible for a certain sit of work activities. A qualitative search method, based on a developmental circle, was utilise. The entropy was collected from archives, hearings, observations, diaries and focus groups.The stuff and nonsense was after analysed in disposition to categorise, model and develop sm tout ensemble-scale theories about schooling systems. The study suggested that computer-based management knowledge systems in processoriented healthcare organisations should (1) choke medical work (2) integrate cl inical and administrative tools (3) facilitate the readiness of the organisation to measure inputs and out lie withs. The research effort concluded that dissimilar healthcare managers need the same type of primary entropy, though presented in different ship canal. Professional evelopers and researchers build paid critical attention to the manner in which incorporated administrative, fiscal and clinical systems should be configured in order to ensure optimal support for process-oriented healthcare organisations. Thus, it is Copernican to identify the multiple roles that information run fors in such an organisation. Department of Computer and Information Science Linkopings universitet SE-581 83 Linkoping, Sweden Co n te n ts 1. admission 1 1. . 1. 2. Organisational and work process models in medical informatics 2 Aims of the study.. 3 2. Research methods 4 2. 1. The place redactting of the case study 4 2. 2. The data collection 6 2. 2. 1.Archival data 6 2. 2. 2. Interviewi ng .. 6 2. 2. 3. Diary method 6 2. 2. 4. Observation 7 2. 2. 5. Focus groups 7 2. . 6. Feedback loops 8 2. 3. Analyses. 8 2. 4. Modelling.. 9 3. Results. 9 3. 1. 3. 2. 3. 3. The requirements of healthcare managers for an HIS. reading material of organisational and work processes in relation to HIS.. 10 A management information system model for process-oriented healthcare. 12 4. Discussion .. 14 5. Conclusions .. 15 6. Future work . 15 7. References . 7 Management Information Systems in Process-oriented healthcare Organisations 1. Introduction Swedish healthcare organisations are necessary by law to maintain a holistic view of their processes (Prop. 1999/2000149). Thus, such organisations need to have an overview of the entire scope of health service delivery. As a result, system thinking is vital (Senge, 1990). An organisation essential be able to collect data from its operational processes and furnish health service management with data concerning the way in which they have utilised their resources (Kaplan & Norton, 1996).As a response to this imperative, many healthcare providers have begun to introduce process-oriented structures recently. in that location are a number of theories about how to design such structures. One theory is based on Business Process Reengineering (BPR), the purpose of which is to identify and design organisational processes (Davenport, 1993). An early(a)(a) approach is to analyse a healthcare organisation as a Complex Adaptive System (CAS), an interdisciplinary method that focuses on the self-organisation of systems and patterns, as well as the way in which outcomes emerge.The purpose of a CAS abbreviation is to resolve issues associated with adaptable systems (Zimmerman, Lindberg & Plsek, 2001). Regardless of whether a BPR or CAS approach is employed, process-oriented organisational structures bet difficulties stemming from the fact that healthcare organisations operate on multiple levels, including county councils, h ospital management, clinical management, and care providers, each with its own information requirements (Andersson, Vimarlund & Timpka, 2002).Each level struggles to survive infra difficult economic constraints, limited growth and the constant threat of regulation (Luce & Elixhauser, 1990). healthcare organisations need an integrated structure in order to quickly shell out information among managers and care providers (Van de Velde, 2000). The first challenge is to structure information systems such that they support the workflow in a healthcare environment (Strauss et al. , 1985). Thus, it is not affect that healthcare managers are increasingly seeking help from health information systems (HIS).Their objective lens is to minimise the overall apostrophizes of healthcare delivery, to improve the pure t mavin of their work (Greenes & Lorenzi 1998 Clayton & van Mullingen, 1996) and to correlate costs with resources consumed (Stead & Lorenzi, 1999). One option for garner data i n an 1 Management Information Systems in Process-oriented health care Organisations HIS is to use censors and different devices that continuously furnish the healthcare organisation with data about its finances, quality, competence and level of satisfaction.However, before an HIS can be designed, some(prenominal)(prenominal) managers and developers need to be well-known(prenominal) with work routines, information requirements, and other key parameters at the clinical level, given that medical information is linked to the environment in which it is generated (Berg & Goorman, 1999). Thus, the organisation must synopsis its information requirements and work procedures. The HIS that ultimately emerges will be embedded in the organisations processes and must satisfy the care providers information needs (Berg, 1999).To sum up, in order to design an HIS in process-oriented healthcare organisations, attention must be paid to issues such as longanimous focus, cost effectiveness, servic e quality, adaptability to the constraints of the organisation, and integrated use of information at both the hospital and clinic level (Ovretveit, 1992 Flarey, 1995). Moreover, a holistic overview based on system thinking is vital, including the gathering of data from multiple sources in order to correlate costs with the work of resources.The challenge is to define models that can support the design of an HIS. 1. 1. 1. Organisational and work process models in medical informatics The main purpose of reengineering was to focus on the processes rather than the functions or an organisation (Hammer, 1990). Further organisational heightenment could be achieved with quality methods such as Total Quality Management (TQM), which include process-oriented models. Another approach is to modify the argumentation culture such that it becomes a learning organisation (Senge, 1990).In the financial area, Balanced Scorecard has been used to translate mission and strategy statements into operatio nal objectives and measurement variables (Kaplan & Norton, 1996). When it comes to medical informatics, attempts have been made to design unhomogeneous kinds of organisational models, such as socio-technical modelling (Berg et al. ,1998). The rationale for introducing these models is to gain a greater judgement of the ways in which an HIS will affect the allocation and content of work tasks.Changes in work activities require modification of information management (Berg, 2001). The validity of a technology rests not only on the fulfilment of useable preciseations, but withal on the interaction of the technical system with its 2 Management Information Systems in Process-oriented Healthcare Organisations organisational environment (Brender, 1998). The resulting conclusion that has been drawn today is that social, organisational, cultural and contextual issues should be return keyn into consideration at an early stage of the development process (Kaplan, 2001).Moreover, approaches such as cultural-historical activity theory have been used to perform contextual analyses of clinical cognition and activity. Culturalhistorical activity theory argues that studying the present healthcare setting is insufficient a researcher must also become present with the history of the setting, given that clinical cognition is embedded in broader institutional structures and longstanding evolution (Engestrom, 1995). One method was to highlight patient data on the presumption that the objective of any healthcare organisation is to improve the health of individuals (Engestrom, 1999).Other researchers argue for a framework that allows for a constant interplay of different models, theories and perspectives (Maij et al. , 2002). The advantages of integrated frameworks are that methods and models can be optimised during the development process, while methods with specific weaknesses can be reinforced by others (Timpka, 1995). at last, there are approaches for exploring the ways in which healthcare providers tend to reason in clinical contexts such as situated action, an emerging perspective for studying human cognition and behaviour in order to design intelligent systems (Patel, Kaufman & Arocha, 1995).Such models address the clinical tasks that are to be performed within specific guidelines and define criteria for selecting appropriate options when there is a set of potentials (Wang et al. , 2002). 1. 2. Aims of the study The aim of this thesis is to develop a management information system model for process-oriented healthcare organisations, based on two questions What kinds of requirements do healthcare managers place on information systems? and How can the work and information systems of healthcare managers and care providers be incorporated into process-oriented healthcare organisations? The work is based on a peak process, during which models are developed by collecting and categorising data, as well as by designing small-scale theories about informat ion systems. Organisational process is defined as a sequence of work procedures that jointly constitute complete healthcare services. A work 3 Management Information Systems in Process-oriented Healthcare Organisations activity is defined as a set of work procedures that are closely related by virtue of their purpose and means of instruction execution. A working(a) social building block is the organisational venue responsible for a certain set of work activities.Healthcare Information Systems (HIS), Management Information Systems (MIS) and Information and Communication Technology (ICT) all define computer-based information systems. 2. Research methods A qualitative research strategy, based on an idiographic case study, was employed. qualitative research, which has evolved within several disciplines, consists of a set of interpretive formulas. It does not accord priority to any single methodology for data collection and analysis, nor does it have a theory or paradigm that is in telligibly its own (Denzin & Lincoln, 1998).Qualitative research is best suited for understanding the processes inherent to a situation, along with the beliefs and perceptions of the people tangled. Nevertheless, qualitative researchers can make their findings more wide applicable (Firestone, 1993). Furthermore, a case study is both a process of inquiry and the product of that inquiry (Stake, 2000). The researcher needs a wide commence of information about the case in order to provide an in-depth assessment (Creswell, 1998). A primary explicition is between single-case and multiplecase designs of such studies (Yin, 1994).A case study whose primary mode of research is hermeneutic is idiographic in a natural setting its main type of data is qualitative and its fundamental level of analysis is holistic (Fishman 1999). Interpretive studies are well served by a considerable degree of openness to field data, along with willingness to refresh initial assumptions and theories. The resu lt is an iterative process of data collection and analysis during which initial theories are expanded upon, rewrite or abandoned altogether (Walsham, 1995). 2. 1. The setting of the case studyThe setting of the study was a paediatric clinic at a county hospital in Sweden. In 1996, the county council adopted a wide-ranging quality program based on TQM and a Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) cycle. In 2000, the county council started using Balanced Scorecard to measure the healthcare organisations outcomes. At the season of the study, the countys development and change program for 4 Management Information Systems in Process-oriented Healthcare Organisations organisational quality was based on a CAS strategy. Furthermore, a processoriented healthcare information system was being designed.With some 30 clinics and 3,200 employees, the hospital had identified its main organisational objectives as the delivery of emergency and specialist healthcare, as well as county-wide replacement and habilit ation services. The purpose of habilitation is to enable someone with a congenital impairment, whereas rehabilitation focuses on recovering lost ability. Above and beyond the responsibilities of healthcare managers in accordance with the functional structure, all clinics at the hospital (including paediatrics) had developed work processes for specific groups of patients.These unhurried Need Group Processes (PNGPs) centred on the healthcare needs of individual patients. The main objective of the PNGPs was to cultivate and maintain a high level of knowledge about medical care at the paediatric clinic. The scope of the processes varied considerably. However, a PNGP unit always comprised at least a doctor, nurse and monument. If necessary, several clinics, hospitals and county councils could collaborate on the same process. In order to improve nurse care, development teams, staffed by practitioners interested in development work, were set up.Specific development areas included pallia tive care and the use of technical equipment. The teams produced documents concerning their specific areas that could prove of value for their co-workers. refreshful work routines were developed for treat care and for activities that are indirectly related to the patient care process, such as meal delivery, ordering medication and play therapy. The teams had contact people at each ward who were prepared to step in whenever breast feeding care problems arose.The team members normally attended meetings during their free time or overlapping time when two shifts were on duty simultaneously. The paediatric clinic also cooperated with maternity wards and a total of 13 Child Health Centres (CHCs) throughout the county. The clinic was part of a network of specialist clinics in southern Sweden that focused on the exchange of knowledge and experience. At the time of the study, the paediatric clinic employed 12 senior physicians, 21 physicians, 91 nurses, 77 paediatric nurses (specialist nu rses aides) and 13 secretaries.The management team consisted of six senior physicians, seven nurses and one secretary from the clinic. During the period of the study, the paediatric clinic supplied approximately 16,000 bed-days to inpatients, performed 5,000 scheduled surgical interventions and handled 5 Management Information Systems in Process-oriented Healthcare Organisations 6,000 emergency room visits by children. The paediatric clinic comprised one surgical unit and three wards, each with a physician responsible for medical matters and a nurse as manager.The ward for neonatal patients had eight beds for intensive care and ten for prenatal care. The ward for contagious patients had 16 isolation rooms for newborn babies and contagious children. The institutional care ward for children older than a year had 18 beds. The clinic used 15 PNGPs. 2. 2. The data collection The collection of data was conducted throughout documents, archives, interviews, observations, diaries, focus grou ps and feedback loops. 2. 2. 1. Archival data Archival data was used to place the research into context before, during and after the studies at the clinical site (Drury, 2002).An obvious danger posed by fixed data is that it can tardily become outdated unbeknownst to the researcher. In these studies, archival data was related to 1) annual reports by the clinic 2) the county councils quality pronouncements 3) the governments bill for the healthcare organisation 4) the physical and mental health survey of hospital employees 5) reports concerning the county councils development plans for an HIS. 2. 2. 2. Interviewing A common interviewing technique is to meet face to face (Fontana & Frey, 1998). The interview may be structured, semi-structured or unstructured.The scope of an interview can range from five minutes to the lifetime of the subject (Fontana & Frey, 2000). This study involved semi-structured interviews with cardinal doctors and four nurses. A series of open-ended questions addressed daily work routines and communication patterns. 2. 2. 3. Diary method The holistic perspective of this approach identifies connections among the individual, societal and organisational levels. One of the techniques that have evolved is the diary method, which proceeds from subjective assessments of time utilisation. The various steps require a practitioner to enter time, activity, Management Information Systems in Process-oriented Healthcare Organisations location, the name of co-workers with whom they interact and other comments during a specified period (Ellegard, Nordell & Westermark, 1999). In this study, a ward nurse kept a diary during one workweek. She entered the nature of her work tasks, the times that she performed them and the names of the co-workers with whom she interacted. 2. 2. 4. Observation Observation involves gathering impressions of the surrounding world. Qualitative observational research is fundamentally naturalistic (Adler & Adler, 1998).There is de scriptive observation, in which the researcher assumes that he or she knows nothing about what is going on and takes nothing for granted. He or she employs focused observation, ignoring that which is defined as irrelevant. Finally there is selective observation, the most systematic approach, during which the researcher concentrates on the attributes of various activities (Angrosino & Mays de Perez, 2000). This type of observation requires a notebook, a storage location for the data that is collected during the process (Ely, 1993).The researcher observes and interacts with care providers at the paediatric wards before and after their rounds. Alongside the observations, the clinical staffs were interviewed again about what they were doing, why they were doing it, what they hoped to gain from an HIS and what benefits they expected. handle notes were entered into a log during the observation study. 2. 2. 5. Focus groups A focus groups planning process should begin as soon as it is set up. The process includes the following steps establish research objectives, appoint a moderator, develop moderator guidelines and draw up procedures.The moderator plays an significant role during the group session. He or she conducts the interviews. It is authoritative that the moderator not be the same person that put together the moderator guidelines and questions. In this study, a focus group session was held with seven nurses and three paediatric nurses, all of whom were women selected by a ward nurse. The participants had various duties at the paediatric clinic, where they had been employed for anywhere from 9? to 32 years. Five nurses were ward managers and two also managed development teams. They all had experience at each ward, as well as the paediatric surgery.The researcher had furnished the group moderator with 7 Management Information Systems in Process-oriented Healthcare Organisations guidelines and questions (Greenbaum, 1993). The questions were based on the clinics profile of itself administrative activities, care readying and development work. Questions also dealt with work activities and the exchange of information with other units. Some questions focused in on a patients relations with the care providers, as well as the time and place for the performance of care activities. The entire focus group session was videotaped and transcribed. . 2. 6. Feedback loops Feedback loops throughout the research project permitted the generation of reports for evaluating data collection. A total of four reports were sent to the practitioners as a result of the case study. In addition, four seminars were held with the practitioners, the purpose of which was to discuss the research findings. The practitioners discussed and go overd the results. 2. 3. Analyses There was no theory at the beginning as to how the material should be analysed. The first step was to break down healthcare management into the hospital, clinical and care process levels.Statements fro m the various management levels were see on the origination of information requirement, i. e. main objectives, system functions, expected benefits and risks to be avoided. The second step was the analysis of three main work activities, each with three work procedures, at the clinic level. The terce step involved the design of a management information system model. All empirical data was categorised. Various themes were identified and classified. After the categories had been cross-compared and clustered, snitch new categories were defined (Strauss & Corbin, 1990).The final analysis started with a category-by-category comparison, which enabled the identification of core categories that were sent to the paediatric clinic as a preliminary report for comment and critique (Glaser, 1978). Finally, the categories were modified in response to the comments. The focus was to come up with a context-based, process-oriented description and explanation of the phenomena (Orlikowski, 1993). The categories were incorporated into two small-scale theories. The first theory interpreted the information requirements of three management levels.The second theory interpreted the work processes employed by institutional care. 8 Management Information Systems in Process-oriented Healthcare Organisations 2. 4. Modelling In order to conduct the final analysis, the two small-scale theories were applied to the modelling of a management information system. Various possible approaches included data modelling (Connolly, Begg & Strachan, 1996), function modelling and object-oriented modelling (Booch, Rumbaugh & Jacobson, 1999). To handle such approaches, various modelling languages have been developed, including the object-oriented Unified Modelling Language (UML) (Fowler & Kendall 1999).The symbols and notations of the various languages can be difficult for the uninitiated to grasp (Sommerville & Sawyer, 2000). Furthermore, the notation and logic for modelling a system must work in tandem with the people involved in the development process. Thus, it is multipurpose to visualise the information flow by means of a modelling approach, using notation and logic that have been establish by consensus. As a result, the management information system models were designed in dialog with the practitioners in the case study.The notation was taken from Eriksson & Penkers (2000) business processes but modified on the basis of the discussions. 3. Results The results are presented in accordance with the three sub-analyses. The first sub-analysis focused on the requirements of healthcare managers for an HIS. The second sub-analysis focused on interpreting organisational and work processes in relation to the HIS. The third sub-analysis focused on designing a management information system model for process-oriented healthcare. 3. 1. The requirements1 of healthcare managers for an HIS hospital management expressed its intention to use an HIS to empower patients while maintaining contro l of resource utilisation. Thus, the planned HIS was expected to encourage a greater overall ken of cost effectiveness with respect to the services provided by various units of the hospital. The biggest risk noted was that of a mismatch between the system and the existing organisational culture, in which it was lightheaded to identify and reward employees who handled 1 Requirements and demands are used as synonym in this chapter and in article 1. 9 Management Information Systems in Process-oriented Healthcare Organisations mergencies. As a result, some of the staff appeared to resist a new way of transmitting information throughout the various levels of the organisation. The goals of the functional units (i. e. clinic management) focused on patients and the introduction of leadership based on co-determination. While management accepted patient empowerment and cost effectiveness as the their main objectives, they thought it was important that employees be allowed to make their own organisational decisions. Management wanted to see a new approach to measuring the activities of their organisational unit.In order to achieve these goals, they sought a way to define the data that is essential to making a reliable estimate. In managing the healthcare process, the objectives of an HIS centred on developing and maintaining specific clinical competence by enhancing support for decision-making and co-operation on the part of care providers. While all the process managers agreed that sharing information and knowledge was important to improving the decision-making process, they were unaware of resource competition issues. However, the withholding of information was not always intentional.Due to limited resources and full schedules, process managers were often unable to share their knowledge with other employees. 3. 2. Interpretation of organisational and work processes in relation to HIS rick activities included (1) co-ordination of information exchange management (2) c are, including musical accompaniment of the care provided and the practice that had evolved at the clinic (3) supply, including patient assistance and psychosocial support. The work procedures of the various activities were often related to and dependent on each other. Co-ordination activities were oriented toward management of the wards and the clinic.The activities focused on co-ordinating various types of information in order to support the care effort. External co-ordination is related to the exchange of information between the paediatric clinic and other care units. This coordination continued after the patients had been discharged from the clinic. Thus, the coordination of external resources and inter-organisational collaboration was important to the management of the clinic. Patient co-ordination started before a patient was admitted to institutional care. There were two 10 Management Information Systems in Process-oriented Healthcare Organisations easons for such approaches . First, the come of time that patients stayed at the wards proved expensive for the healthcare organisation. Thus, such approaches saved money. Second, these approaches enhanced the relationship between care providers and caretakers, assuming that patients and their families were kept well informed. interior co-ordination was related to management and planning activities at the clinic and the wards. Such activities were linked to external and patient co-ordination, given that providers needed to cooperate with other units and patients in order to manage ward care.Care activities were underpinned by what had been agreed upon during the coordination of work activities and the information that was to be used by various co-ordination procedures. Care provision involved medical and nursing care performed by physicians, nurses and paediatric nurses. Care activities were broken down among the various professions. But care was regarded as teamwork from the point of view of the patients. Thus, the work tasks of the various professions cumulatively became what are referred to as the outcome of care provision. Practice development took in both medical and nursing care issues.The knowledge and information cultivated was incorporated into the ordinary work routines of the paediatric clinic. Care documentation activities were linked to care work and development efforts. Documentation provides protection for both care providers and patients. Care documentation served as a means of communication among care providers. Supply activities were indirectly related to care activities. Among employees who performed supply activities were nurses, paediatric nurses, kitchen staff, cleaning staff, play therapists and teachers. Material provision furnished care activities with pharmaceuticals, equipment and materials.Based on the resources that material provision furnished to care activities on a daily basis, estimates were prepared concerning the resources the activities would requir e over time. Bandages, diapers, syringes, and so forth were also a part of material provision. Material provision also included equipment and supplies for play and school activities, such as games, videotapes and textbooks, as well as kitchen and cleaning supplies. Psychosocial support activities called for an information system that could offer emotional support, such as administrative tasks associated with permitting patients to have their own personal phones.Thus, psychosocial support depended on the ability of patient co-ordination efforts to proceed smoothly, assuming that both patients and their families could be kept well 11 Management Information Systems in Process-oriented Healthcare Organisations informed. The main purpose of Patient assistance, which included both material provision and psychosocial activities, was to assist care activities. Such activities were related to supporting the physical and mental well-being of patients while undergoing medical and nursing care. 3. 3.A management information system model for process-oriented healthcare The county council formally required that hospital management monitor and report on service ware with regard to quality and cost. As a result, hospital management needed data about resource utilisation and healthcare quality from the hospital organisation, along with information systems that could support methods such as Total Quality Management (TQM) and Balanced Scorecard. To monitor costs and quality, hospital management needed data from the functional units after determining what needed to be collected.The focus of process management was developing and maintaining a high level of quality in the medical and nursing care processes. The process unit was responsible for documentation and quality control operations. Process management needed directives from the functional management unit about both data collection templates and quality for medical and nursing care. Process management generated information ab out medical and nursing quality data for functional unit management. Best practice guidelines and decision support protocols for clinical practitioners were involved in the clinical process.The HIS use required by process management was a service quality control system that could extract data from and support decision making for medical and nursing care. Functional unit management comprised managers at both the clinic and ward levels. Clinic management organised the monitoring of the clinics resources, while ward managers co-coordinated the exchange of information at the wards. Functional unit management requested information about resource allocation specifications and templates for expenditure reports, as well as for patient satisfaction and staff work satisfaction data, from hospital management.Functional unit management needed data concerning the perceptions of patients and staff with regard to the services provided by the unit. Management was also looking for a way to relate i ts expenditures to resources utilised. In other words, its primary needs were in the areas of data collection, storage and access tools. 12 Management Information Systems in Process-oriented Healthcare Organisations Thus, functional unit management required data from clinical activities, but not at an individual or contextual level.The systems it was seeking were to supply data for use at a complicated level, including the volume of financial and human resources that specified care activities necessitated. To monitor service delivery, management units in process-oriented healthcare organisations need data in three distinct areas (1) medical and nursing care, (2) patient flows and (3) the utilisation of human and material resources. Although the management units may have access to a common data warehouse, requirements for data analysis and presentation vary considerably.Similarly, data collected from the healthcare organisation during daily work routines can be shared, but the prima ry data must be converted into a format that is usable by healthcare managers. The data that is collected should ideally be located where it can be made obtainable to ordinary healthcare activities. For instance, networked devices can be used to monitor pharmaceutical use. Intelligent devices can also be connected to equipment in order to span their use, and material storage and use (diapers, sheets, etc. ) can be traced by bar-code systems.Furthermore, patients and healthcare staff can be registered with smart cards as they come and go. However, computerised patient records (CPRs) are the most logical central resource for data collection in the clinical setting. The data that is documented in the records can be used to monitor the clinical activities that have been performed. CPRs can also furnish data about work activities at the healthcare organisation. Such data is of unforesightful value as long as it is limited to individual patients. What is useful is to analyse cumulative data, such as the number of radiology examinations that have been conducted on leukaemia patients.The purpose of the data warehouse is to store what has been collected from various sources. The application and its interface are the parts of the HIS with which healthcare managers interact and with which users most readily identify. Thus, the application must help healthcare managers use information and must supply the right information to the right healthcare managers. Moreover, the application must support the specific analysis methods, tools and data formats required by current organisational analysis procedures, such as Balanced Scorecard and quality assurance methods. 13Management Information Systems in Process-oriented Healthcare Organisations 4. Discussion The aim of this thesis was to develop a management information system model for process-oriented healthcare organisations. The research effort employed qualitative methods such as archival data analyses, interviews, observat ions, diary analyses and focus group analyses. Constant feedback loops among the participants in an idiographic case study helped establish a balanced interpretation. Meanwhile, categorising and modelling formed the pattern of interpretation for the management information system model.The main findings of the study are that an HIS in a process-oriented organisation must support the medical work, integrate clinical and administrative tools, and furnish information that allows for the measurement of organisational inputs and outcomes. As a result, it is important to identify the multiple roles that information plays in a process-oriented healthcare organisation. Most of the organisational development methods that healthcare currently takes advantage of, such as reengineering and quality management, include process definitions. However, the interaction between various groups of processes has seldom been analysed.Several recent organisational methods, such as Balanced Scorecard (Kaplan & Norton, 1996), address the problem of relating costs to resources. The areas in which information systems are expected to enhance care delivery range from access to medical knowledge bases, patient and clinician communication, and the minimisation of medical errors. Nevertheless, little attention has been paid to how integrated administrative, financial and clinical systems should be configured in order to support process-oriented healthcare organisations in an optimal manner.Internal co-ordination is informed by and dependent on documentation of care activities, particularly by monitoring the way in which human resources are harnessed to take care of patients. Furthermore, such co-ordination relies on information about the utilisation of material resources, i. e. durable equipment and disposables. Thus, internal coordination must obtain information from care activities in order to synchronise the work of the clinic, as well as to tail costs associated with care and supply activi ties. The various processes monitor costs and allocate resources, relating them to the kinds of care activities that have been provided. 4 Management Information Systems in Process-oriented Healthcare Organisations The third sub-analysis discovered that the various management levels in process-oriented healthcare organisations need the same type of primary data, though in differing formats. An HIS for healthcare management in a processoriented healthcare setting can adhere to its structure and practice activities. Moreover, CPRs and other tools can be used to directly collect management data where and when the activities take place. But the data is useful only if healthcare management has the opportunity to examine it with its own analysis tools.For instance, while computerised ordering systems are regarded as important, the fit between organisational and information system models is not identified as a success factor. Clearly, there is a need for systems that optimise clinical work flow, as well as those that support the maintenance of equipment and supplies. However, systems provide optimal organisational value only if they support an integrated organisational model and business plan. 5. Conclusions This thesis points out that healthcare managers at different levels in an organisation all need the same primary data.The differences among the various management levels all concern the ways in which they compile the data that they need for their work. One problem when developing management information systems for healthcare organisations has been a lack of interest in integrating administrative, financial and clinical systems. In process-oriented healthcare organisations, integration is essential to obtaining the full benefits of such a structure. System thinking must also pervade the development of healthcare management information systems.As a result, the multiple roles played by information in process-oriented healthcare organisations must be identified. 6. Fu ture work Identifying the multiple roles played by information in a process-oriented healthcare setting requires additional research about the process of designing an HIS. In the complex environment that healthcare organisations represent, various practitioners are required to pinpoint data sources and information 15 Management Information Systems in Process-oriented Healthcare Organisations requirements, as well as to advocate for the process of change in the organisational and information structure.Healthcare managers have differing preferences when it comes to information requirements, organisational processes and work activities. Thus, the development process relies on tools that can incorporate those divergent needs into system thinking. As a result, primary data is refined into information differently at the various levels of a processoriented healthcare organisation. More research is required concerning information system models and their notation. Though various groups (syst em analysts, designers, programmers and healthcare managers) can employ models and modelling activities during a development process, their objectives differ.Healthcare managers need to visualise their work environment and organisational processes, system analysts are interested in developing information systems in collaboration with designers, and programmers are looking for coding specifications. They may share a vision in terms of designing a healthcare information system, but their perspectives vary. Thus, the modelling effort should be based on at least two dimensions (1) furnishing models with notations and objectives oriented towards specific groups (2) ensuring that the models visualise the same system but address varying interpretations.Arguments based on the cognitive and practice perspective have identified prototyping as a fruitful approach to the development process (Houde &Hill, 1997). Prototyping is often used when the design calls for a high degree of involvement on the part of practitioners and end-users (Bodker & Gronb? k, 1991). Modelling, on the other hand, is linked to an organisational perspective and is frequently employed by system analysis methods. Thus, there is an opportunity to combine these two perspectives during the development process.Modelling is useful as part of a design theory with a high degree of practitioner involvement alongside of system analysts, designers and programmers. The process can subsequently be analysed based on the representations in the models that emerge from the requirements of the various groups. Additional research should examine what the groups need when it comes to the substance of the models, how the models are to be visualised and the ways in which they can interact with the differing requirements of the groups in order to ensure a fruitful development process. 16Management Information Systems in Process-oriented Healthcare Organisations 7. References Adler P. A. , Adler P. , (1998), observational Techniques, in Denzin N. K. , Lincoln Y. S. , (eds), accumulation and Interpreting Qualitative Material, Thousand Oaks, sage-green Publication. Andersson A. , Vimarlund V. , Timpka T. , (2002), Management demands on Information and communication technology in process-oriented health-care organizations the importance of understanding managers expectations during early phases of systems design, daybook of Management in Medicine special issue Health informatics, Vol 16 159-169.Angrosino M. V. , Mays de Perez K. A. , (2000), Rethinking Observation From Method to Context, In Denzin N. K. , Lincoln Y. S. , (eds), Handbook of Qualitative Research second edition, Thousand Oaks, discerning Publication. Berg M. , (1999) Patient care information systems and health care work a sociotechnical approach, worldwide journal of medical checkup Informatics, Vol. 55 87-101. Berg M. , (2001), Implementing information systems in health care organisations myths and challenges, International Journal of medical Informatics. Vol. 64 143-156. Berg M. , Langenberg C. , Berg I. V. d. Kwakkernaat J. , (1998), Considerations for sociotechnical design experiences with an electronic patient record in a clinical context, International Journal of Medical Informatics, Vol. 52 243-251. Berg M. , Goorman E. , (1999) The contextual nature of medical information, International Journal of Medical Informatics, Vol. 56 51-60. Booch G. , Rumbaugh J. , Jacobson I. , (1999), The Unified Modelling Language User guide, Harlow, Addison-Wesley. Bodker S. , Gronb? k K. , (1991), Design in action From prototyping by demonstration to cooperative prototyping, In Greenbaum J. , Kyng M. eds), Design at work Cooperative design of computer systems, Hillsdale, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 17 Management Information Systems in Process-oriented Healthcare Organisations Brender J. , (1998), Trends in assessment of IT-based solutions in healthcare and recommendations for the future, International Journal of Medical Informatics, Vol. 52 217-227. Clayton P. D, van Mulligen E. (1996), The Economic motivation for clinical information system, In JJ Cimino (ed), Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association, pp. 663 668, Proceedings Annual clear Symposium October 26 30 Washington DC.Connolly T. , Begg C. , Strachan A. , (1996), Database Systems A practical Approach to Design, Implementation and Management, Harlow, Addison-Wesley. Creswell J. W. , (1998), Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design Choosing Among five Traditions, Thousands Oaks, Sage. Davenport T. H. , (1993) Process Innovation Reengineering Work through Information Technology, Boston, Harvard Business School Press. Denzin N. K. , Lincoln Y. S. , (1998), Entering the Field of Qualitative Research, In Denzin N. K. , Lincoln Y. S. , (eds), Collecting and Interpreting Qualitative Material, Thousand Oaks, Sage Publication.Drury C. G. , (2002), The use of archival data, In Wilson J. R. , Corlett E. N. , (eds), Evaluation of H uman Work A practical ergonomics methodology, second edition, London, Taylor & Francis Ltd. Ellegard K. , Nordell K. , Westermark A. , (1999), Att ta kontroll over vardagsliv kvalitativ dagboksmetod for reflektiv emancipation, In Linden J. , Westlander G. , Karlsson G. , (red), Kvalitativa metoder i arbetsvetenskapen, Uppsala, TK i Uppsala AB. Ely M. , (1993), Kvalitativ forskningsmetodik i praktiken cirklar om cirklar, Lund, Studentlitteratur. Engestrom Y. (1995), Objects, contradictions and collaboration in medical cognition an activity-theoretical perspective, Artificial Intelligence in Medicine, Vol 7 395-412. 18 Management Information Systems in Process-oriented Healthcare Organisations Engestrom Y. , (1999), Expansive visibilization of work An activity-Theoretical Perspective, Computer Supported Cooperative Work, vol. 8, pp. 63-93, Kluwer Academic Publisher, Netherlands. Eriksson H-E. , Penker M. , (2000), Business Modeling with UML Business Patterns at Work, New York, John Wiley & Sons Inc.Firestone, W. A. , (1993), Alternative Arguments for Generalising From Data as Applied to Qualitative Research, Educational Researcher, Vol. 22 No. 4, pp. 16-23. Fishman D. B. , (1999), The Case for Pragmatic Psychology, New York, New York University Press. Flarey D. L. (1995), Redesigning nursing care delivery, Philadelphia J. B. Lippincott Company. Fontana A. , Frey J. H. , (1998), Interviewing The Art of science, in Denzin N. K. , Lincoln Y. S. , (eds), Collecting and Interpreting Qualitative Material, Thousand Oaks, Sage Publication Fontana A. , Frey J. H. (2000), The interview From Structured Questions to Negotiated Text, In Denzin N. K. , Lincoln Y. S. , (eds), Handbook of Qualitative Research second edition, Thousand Oaks, Sage Publication. Fowler M. , Kendall S. , (1999), UML distilled Applying the standard object modelling language, Reading, Addison-Wesley. Glaser B. B. , (1978), Theoretical Sensitivity, California, The Sociology Press. Greenbaum T. L. , ( 1993), The handbook for Focus Group Research, New York, Lexington Books. Houde S. , Hill C. , (1997), What do Prototypes Prototype? , In Helander M. Landauer T. K. , Prabhu P. (eds), Handbook of Human-Computer Interactions Second, completely revised edition, Elsevier Science B. V. Kaplan B. , (2001), Evaluating, informatics applications some alternative approaches theory, social interactionism, and call for methodological pluralism, International Journal of Medical Informatics, Vol. 64 39-56. 19 Management Information Systems in Process-oriented Healthcare Organisations Kaplan R. S. , Norton D. P. , (1996), Translating strategy into action the Balanced Scorecard, Boston, Harvard Business School Press.Luce BR. Elixhauser (1990), A. Standards for Socioeconomic Evaluation of Healthcare Services. Berling Heidelberg Germany Springer-Verlag. Maij E. , Toussaint P. J. , Kalshoven M. , Poerschke M. , Zwetsloot-Schonk J. H. M. , Use cases and DEMO aligning functional features of ICT-infrast ructure to business processes, International Journal of Medical Informatics, Vol. 65 179-191. Orlikowski W. J. , (1993), CASE Tools as Organizational Change Investigating Incremental and Radical Changes in Systems Development, Management Information Systems Quarterly, Vol. 7 309-340. Patel V. L. , Kaufman D. R. , Arocha J. F. , counselling through the murky waters of a scientific conflict situated and symbolic models of clinical cognition, Artificial Intelligence in Medicine, Vol 7 413-438. Prop. 1999/2000149, Nationell handlingsplan for utveckling av halso- och sjukvarden, Sveriges Riksdag, Stockholm, 1999. Senge, P. M. , (1990), The one-fifth Discipline The art and practice of the learning organisation, New York, Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group Inc. Sommerville I. Sawyer P. , (1997), Requirement Engineering A good practice guide, Chichester, John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Stake, R. E. , (2000), Case study, In Denzin N. K. , Lincoln Y. S. , (eds), Handbook of Qualitative Research second edition, Thousand Oaks, Sage Publication. Stead W. W. , Lorenzi N. M. , (1999), Health Informatics Linking Investment to Value, Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association, Vol. 6 341-348. Strauss. A. , Corbin J. , (1990), Basics of Qualitative Research Techniques and

Factors that influence an individual’s self-concept Essay

P3 State factors that influence an individuals self-concept M2 Outline how factors post influence the growth of an individuals self-conceptSharon is a 17 year old girl at the stage of adolescence, to add on to that shes also a bingle mother of two children. Throughtaboo her life she has had to grow up more(prenominal) than others as she has a family of her own to look after as swell as her educational life which give determine how her future will turn fall out later. In this assignment I will state as well as outline factors that can influence the schooling of Sharons self-concept. Before I continue I will be discussing self-concept, self-esteem and self-image in wrong of Sharon. Self-concept is how Sharon views herself in terms of her strengths and weaknesses self-concept is what she thinks of herself as While self-esteem is how very much Sharon values herself, in other words if Sharon had a high self-esteem she would be more ilkly to believe herself as an extremely likea ble person. Lastly, self-image is basically the overall image Sharon has of herself, what she believes her own image portrays.Read moreInfluences that affect childrens development essayAgeEspecially at the stage of adolescence, girls like Sharon tend to be extremely self-aware of their own image and how they portray themselves towards the public. This is because as Sharon gets older, shes more likely to care virtually how other people think of her. Age influences Sharons self-concept because as she gets older shell tend to behave in a certain(prenominal) way when she thinks she doesnt belong anywhere, to be able to fit into everybodys standards. As Sharon gets older, shes more likely to develop her own self-image so far peer pressure will prohibit her from doing that as she will feel more pressured into fitting in and more fearful of being rejected by the majority.AppearanceAppearance is a big influence on Sharons self-concept, as appearance also affects your self-image as well as self-esteem. During the stage of adolescence, teenagers like Sharon tend to be more critical to themselves more therefore their way of judging tends to be more harsh depending onSharons judgment of herself its more likely that she will either have higher self-esteem or lower self-esteem this is because at this stage teenagers like Sharon tend to look for out their insecurities more and are slight likely to point out their strengths since they are more focused on trying to fit inAnd these eld teenage girls care more about being physically perfect and trying climb up the social ladder that they some sequences forget about their own unique qualities and try to forge a solely whole image which fits completely into golf-clubs standards. However looking back at Sharons past, its more likely that shes to have a more negative self-concept, self-image as well as self-esteem as non only has she given birth once but twice and pregnancies can cause physical side effects such(prenomina l) as stretch tag now adding on to the stress Sharon has to face from trying to fit in she also has to face the physical side effects of giving birth which can cause her self-esteem to deflate which will overall affect her self-image.GenderGender influences Sharons self-concept because Sharon depending on how shes been brought up may act upon societys expectations towards male and female. When it conveys to females, they are expected to be more of the submissive type that tend to do the domestic tasks around the house and do jobs associate to health care more than physically strenuous jobs. Unlike males who are suspected to be more dominant, strong and more into jobs which doesnt require ablaze involvement but more of physical and intellectual involvement. When it comes to genders influences to Sharons self-concept, she will tend to stray away from doing physically strenuous activities as a girl shes not expected to be strong and fit like boys but fragile and slender because it suits societys overview on femininity. Overall adolescents like Sharon will feel more pressured in trying to fit into their gender roles.CultureCulture affects our self-concept because it could change Sharons values and views of herself depending on what kind of culture she grew up into. Culture teaches Sharon a lot about how to do things such as what kind of clothes towear, how to react in divers(prenominal) situations, and what food she should be eating in other words it encourages Sharon to have different views and improves her self-concept depending on what kind of culture we grew up into. Culture mostly influences compulsive self-concept as culture is mostly not aimed to degrade our self-image but to improve our overall views on ourselves by gaining confidence and learning how to do and view things in a certain way. For Sharon since it seems that she hasnt moved around much thus it miserlys that shes been able to fit in to her culture quite well, and may not have much diffi culty making herself accustom to other peoples culture the way they were brought up.Culture affects self-concept because self-concept involves things such as how cagy you are, and the approach to education is something thats viewed differently from culture to culture. The Asian culture might be more uptight and committed to education, in contrast to the westerly cultures less uptight but nonetheless committed approach to education. The downside of culture is that if Sharon was to find her culture and another persons culture clashing together then it could cause a negative influence towards her self-concept as this could mean that they wont have the same views or attitudes to certain things, which could cause Sharons overall performance to a disadvantage as itll make her more self-conscious and less confident in the way she has been brought up as well as feel anxious as she might not be able to get her views across easily.IncomeIncome influences Sharons self-concept because dependi ng on how much income Sharon or her mothers income might be it might change her views towards money and expenditure as well as values towards other factors such as education because education usually is the key to a better occupation which could lead to higher income. Especially when Sharons a untried private mother with most likely no high income at all, shes forced to sacrifice some of her own self-indulgences to be able to provide for her children as well as aid in monthly bills with Janet as Janet cant always provide financial security for her family.Due to Sharons watercourse situation shes more likely to have a negative self-concept, she will often find life more difficult and find less enjoyment out of trying to maintain enough income to fend for herfamily as this will reduce Sharons time for herself as well as time to hang out with her friends and family. However since Sharon not only gave birth to Aimee but Fergal, this could indicate that there are positive influences t o income when it comes to Sharons situation as this could mean Sharons willing to cope with the problems of being a single mother and try to be successful at it, meaning she must have a higher self-esteem to be able to have a high motivation.MediaMedia plays an important role in influencing Sharons self-concept, media tends to encourage adolescents such as Sharon to come up with unrealistic ideals. This could cause Sharon to go through extreme measures such as dieting to get the perfect body, as well as completely change how she behaves because she might not be portraying the feminine image girls should have. The media tends to exaggerate flaws out of people that adolescents like Sharon feel the need to change overdue to the growing feeling of insecurity about their own qualities which causes low self-esteem and self-image because of this Sharon may feel tempted to compare herself with friends and other people and be increasingly self-aware of other peoples opinions. Depending on h ow much self-esteem Sharon has towards her self-image shes more likely to change her self-concept in order to meet the unrealistic norms the media has brought out from trying to maintain consistency with the idea of perfection.EducationEducation affects Sharons self-concept because education is a gateway to Sharons overall financial outcome as well as lifestyle in the future it also gives Sharon the ability to choose. However since Sharons a single mother education would have to be postponed as her life now revolves around her two children Aimee and Fergal. Since Sharons at the age of 17 shes still in progress of acquiring her qualifications, doing her A-levels then going to University. Unfortunately her current situation will prevent her from working to the best of her ability, this may affect her self-concept asshell be less motivated to subscribe to and learn.She may also lack self-esteem because she might not be able to understand whats going on in her lessons and what needs to be done. Her teachers might undertake to discourage her from continuing the courses she does due to bad grades and overall her self-concept will change negatively. Being a mother at the age of 17 is hard to hide, in such a big environment such as school and being pregnant at such a young age can be looked down upon which could cause Sharon to get bullied at school. Bullying is a dilemma that people have always tried to prevent but it still goes on today, it could cause a lot of damage to a persons self-concept especially Sharons.EnvironmentSharons financial position may prevent her and her family to live in a peaceful environment where pollution and violence is rarely an occurrence. This will affect her self-concept as Sharon will start to compare her situation with others that may have a better lifestyle bringing her self-esteem and self-image down. With her current situation shes more likely to be living in a more polluted environment, meaning the environment shes living in wou ld be uncontained and unclean. This will be a potentially damaging environment for her childrens health thus affecting her self-concept negatively.SocialisationWhen it comes to socialisation Sharons lifestyle will affect her greatly, as shes a busy mother who would have to prioritise her children first before personal indulgences. This will affect her self-concept and self-image because she will have less time to hang out with her friends and socialise as well as even have enough time to take care of herself or go shopping. Sharons self-confidence will also decrease drastically as she compares her friends social life with hers, because Sharon already has a family while her friends are still at their adolescence stage having lots of immunity and less responsibilities to take.

Technology During World War II

Radar and Bombsites. Both technologies played a crucial role in the defensive and offensive strategies of all the countries involved. During World state of war II radar saw its first use in combat operations. Although radar came of age during the war (Gobble) it is often referred to as the weapon that won the war and the invention that changed the world.Radar was a technology that allowed land bases to detect Incoming aircraft and direct their anta-alarm defenses In the direction of the Incoming aircraft. Radar was also seed in an offensive strategy by giving aircraft the ability to attack targets at night and during inclement weather. Although the use of aircraft in combat wasnt a late concept in World War II, the development of the bombsites helped to make them a strategic weapon. Bombsites technology allowed for more accurate bomb runs and precision targeting of military and industrial locations.By factoring in altitude, air speed, and backcloth speed, World War II bombsites allowed bombers to fly at higher altitudes during their bombing missions which provided safety to the bombers and their crews from nit-aircraft guns and defending fighter aircraft. Radar Radar technology works by transmittance strong, short pulses of radio energy into the air in a specific direction using what is called a directional antenna. When these pulses hit an object resembling a ship, or aircraft they bounce off the object and back to the antenna.These signals are then converted into an electric signal and shown on screen where they can be viewed by an operator. The position of a detected target Is determined by measuring the time It takes the signal pulse to travel to the target, ounce off, and return to the transmitting antenna. Combining this with the direction the antenna is pointing, gives the targets position. Bombsites A bombsites Is a device used by aircraft to sight a target from the alarm and then accurately push aside a bomb on that target.When a bomb Is dropp ed from an airplane It does not fall straight down but actually moves forward as it falls. This is caused by the horizontal movement of the plane in flight. A falling bomb is also affected by the air resistance created by falling by the air, which causes the bomb to always be Enid the plane when it strikes the target. A bombsites determines, in real time, both the range and the course of the plane so as to calculate the veracious moment for releasing a bomb.On the 7th of September 1940, the first wave of over 600 German bombers flew up the River Thames to attack the docks. This was the first night of a bombing campaign called the Blitz. Men and women living along the Thames believed the whole world was on fire. For the next 56 nights London was bombed from dusk to dawn. Conclusion With the technology coming into WI, the war had changed. By building and reading new bomb sights, the Germans could easily bomb London from the air with out worry of artillery below.Many civilians were killed in these bombing however, Londoner go on to go to work and move with every day life. Another new piece of technology, Radar, was also introduced in WI. This created a new era of technology establish warfare. It is said that Radar could have stopped the bombing of Pearl Harbor as the Radar had picked up the incoming bombers. However, as Radar was only new and introduced, higher Captains didnt believe what they were seeing was real and avoided it.

Civil Rights Movement in the United States: The Effects of the Civil Rights Movement on Race Relations within the United States

The Jim Crow System is a system in and through which the central idea is differentiation. This differentiation is done on the basis of ethnicity or race. Differentiation entails the recognition that races are different and as such, it creates a political setting that separates races such as the Whites from the Blacks. In addition to this, it in addition separates and ultimately, limits or hold races such as the Blacks to a sociable sphere with corresponding social functions that are imposed on them.The genteel Rights sweat may be seen as a result of such a differentiation and segregation within the social sphere that it reflects the recognition of the unjust and inhumane aspect of such methods of social differentiation and social segregation. After the said movement, it has been argued that racial differentiation and segregation no longer exists within the United States, and due to this in a sense the Civil Rights Movement has been successful. However, there are several contentio ns to such a perspective.First, the effects of the expedited implementation of civil rights on each(prenominal) facets and areas of society, especially in the North, combined with the break from the traditional means of social integration helped spark the violent white backlash of the 1970s. The White reverberate is a reactionary populism involving the middle, working class moved by a sense of threat regarding the policies implemented during the time. Thus, race and racism are not to be seen as the main factors involved for they cannot account for the White Backlash in a manner that is altogether acceptable.It is of equal importance that we take into consideration the fact that the Whites resistance to the policies implemented during the time was also brought about by a general feeling of threat and the idea of being displaced in their communities. The discussions regarding racial segregation in schools and communities and forced busing further assures this point. some other iss ue of vital importance that may be related to the idea of gentrification. This refers to the Whites reactionary stance on the implemented policies generated feelings of threat regarding both their sense of certification and sense of community.It is important to note that the very idea and experience of homelessness, being evicted from ones immediate environment and his or her social and political environment is degrading for the evicted families and individuals. The aforementioned(prenominal) experience generates feelings of powerlessness, anxiety, and oppression. In American history, gentrification is considered as a mechanism for the revitalization or rehabilitation of the casualties brought about by wars and conflicts both from outdoor(a) and internal threats.Examples of such destructive courses in history are World War I and World War II. Gentrification, as viewed by Smith, results in the displacement of lower income people such as laborers by the well-to-do or the middle c lass in the process of rehabilitating, revitalizing, and upgrading of deteriorated urban property. In so furthermost as gentrification obliterates working class communities, displaces poor households and converts whole neighborhoods into bourgeois enclaves, the frontier ideology rationalizes social differentiation and exclusion as natural and inevitable (Smith, 1992, p. 2). These ideas strengthen the general view that the White Backlash is largely the reaction of the social classes in the middle and lowest strata, the working class White Bostonians since the elites are in his words exempted from the start. The feeling of threat and the fear of displacement in their communities, these are important factors to consider as to why the White Backlash occurred. The business with the frontier ideology and the process of gentrification, as I reckon, is that they pose serious threats on the very notion of a shared history.As the materially-driven existing estate industries and markets con tinue to flourish and the advent of deindustrialization, the easier it displaces low-income people from their immediate social environment, social and political milieu thus, endangering the very notion of a shared history. In contrast to such claims Weisbrot (1990) claims that although certain forms of injustice still exists what is important to consider are the facets of social change resulting from the aforementioned movement.He claims, Like other ameliorate movements the crusade for racial justice inevitably fell short of the utopian goals that sustained it. Still, if (it) is judged by the distance it traveleda record of substantial exercise unfolds (1990, p. 339). Such achievement involve school desegregation and the securing of representation and voting rights. In addition to this, Weisbrot argued that such schoolings may be seen as the result of the development of tolerance and hence pluralism within the American community.He claims that as a result of the aforementioned mo vement, pluralism is more firmly rooted in American set than ever before (1990, p. 342). However, the fast-paced implementation that is, of the recognition of civil rights be regarded as fundamental rights that ought to be granted to every citizen of the state and not but to a selected few, the Whites unraveled structures and ideologies of society too fast most importantly the historically embedded ideas of race and class without providing or setting up new structures for what was unraveled.This presents the second critique to the simulated success of the Civil Rights Movement. Third, educational par and racial equality were never achieved in the expedited implementation of the civil rights through desegregation, forced busing and affirmative action policies. The national government was forcing busing, economics, and housing all at the same time. This leads to Wickers point that the problem with the integration plan was how extensive it was and how difficult it was to implement . This is precisely because of the aforementioned reasons, which serve as warrants to my second argument.The question regarding the expedited implementation of such policies fails to consider that such radical changes will result to devastating consequences. The problem is, so to speak, frequently more complex. As Wicker suggests, economic as well as political empowerment if African-American disadvantagesare to be overcome (1996, p. 347). The problem with the Civil Rights Movement is that it was not universal. It was not universal in the sense that the Blacks themselves are not unified in their struggles for racial justice and liberation.It was not able to attract an inter-subjective consensus not only from human rights advocates but also most especially from the Blacks themselves. The movement lacks what may be called a unity of purpose which entails unified and joint actions. This is in accordance with Wickers argument regarding the failure of the aforementioned movement. Wicke r (1996) contends that the Civil Rights Movement failed to enable racial integration due to the go on separation of whites and blacks into hostile and unequal classes which leads to political deadlock, economic inequity, and social rancor that mark American life (p. 345).In summary, although the implementation of civil rights on all facets and areas of society created changes on the realms of the social, political, and economic but there remains a question whether such huge and radical changes are effective since the phenomenon in itself is deeply embedded in the culture of the American society. True, the American society and its political culture do have problems. In the case of racial and educational equality and the expedited implementation of the civil rights, however, the issues are more intricate. In order for racial inequalities to end, American society must be prepared for huge and radical changes

Growth Of Population And Resources Environmental Sciences Essay

Garrett Hardin foremost wrote The Tragedy of the super acid , and was published in his diary Science in 1968, and it is one of the a grand deal talked about in the human race of today. He mentioned the calamity of position as the festerings of worlds on surround by giving specific congressman on 4 herders and their attitude towards environs ( Hardin, 1968 ) . It gained impulse during agricultural revolution and was restricted to depletion of environment by oer graze or by hapless agricultural patterns. Hardin specially discusses about the make that guild face as a here and now of the follow out towards environment to deduce benefits. The effects faced by the present population dope be due to depletion of Resources and the affect on eco form. The calamity of parks has out set become a cardinal of understanding for many local and planetary ecological melodys. Calamity of honey oil is non applicable in modern universe beca miscellany stateout Hardin has given illus tration about the grazing land and it is express to a certain country and he focused promontoryly on degradation yardd by worlds straightforward where as in todays universe the affect on environment is caused by other f m gagaors for case the taint caused by mills ( en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollution ) . His recitement although had brought a batch of unfavorable judgment withal the ensue of the present universe is really much related to what might realize happened during his clip. The Earth rear be an illustration of a grazing land and the quadruple herders and the cattles responsible for the depletion be the human race utilizing the resources and the applied science responsible for rapid diminution in resources. It has besides wined much attending to research guideers and experts and to use on it ( Crowe, 1977 ) . Those plants include the research on behavioural scientific disciplines, from psychological science to governmental scientific discipline and from spari ng sciences to biology. The environmental employments of today atomic number 18 due to commonwealth detonation, human greed and atomic number 18 now pulling to a greater extent attending towards economic development ( www.freedom21agenda.org ) . piece creation is turning at an exponential rate and their stuff wants excessively, where as the resources to bring ahead wants that the Earth provides is minimum and non plenty to do the turning tribe ( Malthus, 1798 ) . Resources are non plenty to run into the huge population and as a consequence the daze on environment is terrible. compassionate oblige un earmark wants and the impulse to fulfill their wants is read/write head reasonableness for development of inborn resources. The environmental line of descent related to present universe is chiefly due to unsustainable physical exercise of resources. globes greed has exceeded the capacity and alternatively of utilizing the resources at sustainable degree they moderate kick the bucketed to utilize more resources to tap production because volume connitty-grittye more as compared to those in olden yearss. pecks explore and deplete non renewable resources and utilizing resources worry neer used earlier. Renewable resources are depleted faster that they can non be regenerate so therefore there is more force per unit area on resources. The chief line of business that present coevals faces is promotion of economic development. Harmonizing to study of Brundtland Commission of United Nations, the developed states suck in already exhausted their ain resources and face the challenges from developing states. The cushion on environment by developed states was monolithic and the result is witnessed today and if the development states follow the footfalls of developed states the effects impart be a catastrophe. The animated unrecord state of affairs faced by Caspian Sea on depletion of piscaries provides one of the best illustrations of effects of the human impact. The present insensible species of Caspian Sea has deteriorated to an extent that it faces a menace of extinction in future. The chief ground for the diminution was deficiency of cooperation among those states who portion and uses the resources and hapless direction ( Pourkazemi, 2006 ) . However the low resources could be single-minded if the raft come up with some possible resolutions to get the better of the jobs. Some Potential solution could be modulating the usage of resources, making and apportioning rights to resources and race go and sustainable usage of resources. However, all these solutions entrust be successful if the Government motors enterprises in explicating programs and effectual execution to work out the bodied action job. However those solutions will non be successful because people, societies and states have different theory and redden International governing such as United Nations ( UN ) face tough challenges to convert division Natio ns to command and woodsall temper from development ( hypertext transfer protocol //www.un.org/en/global issues/environment ) .The calamity of parks is really much related to the actions and effects of our present universe. It is clear that the universe has reached at the phase where everything has become scarce and expensive. Human existences have to make up ones mind whether the peculiar(a) stock the Earth has at the minute should be used at a sustainable rate or maintain on working the limited resources and face the effects. The calamity of parks as explained by Garrett in 1968 is apprehensible even by the populace. It was undercoat in in-between ages where the most habitual adult male was outstanding during those times. This likely must mark off happened during Agricultural revolutions because there is adequate grounds to turn out and back up this statement. The Calamity of parks is a really good illustration, and the writer mentioned about worlds exploitation to natural un iverse and different sentiment of single or degree of cooperation at planetary degree in restricting overexploitation of natural resources. Garrett has really given the privilege to conceive of about the grazing land land opened to 4 herders. While reflecting the article, is an illustration ( foremost sketched booklet by Lloyd, 1833 ) , affecting mediaeval land term of smear in Europe, of Herders sharing a common package of land, on which they are each entitled to deed over their cattles graze. The four herders are sharing the grazing land land, which can exclusively back up 24 cattles before it gets depleted. Each one of them was supposed to hold 3 cattles each. Now its deba remand here how four of them would wish to pull off the grazing land land. The three Environmental motor graduated table ( Schultz, 2000 ) or personal motive for the environmental concern is effectual here. If one of them decides to add one more cow, he will have all the benefits of the cow, but it is obvio us he portions merely of the cost to the corporate grazing land. He earns a net income. This will actuate the other herder and they besides start to add more cattles to maximise net incomes. This shows all the cow Herders have egocentric concern for the environment and this will decidedly hold a negative impact on environment. Soon they will decease 24 cattles and the graze cow will overdrive and con trade unione the grazing land. They knew this could go on but out of greed for privation of more net income they over use the grazing land. If anyone of them had the selfless and limits himself, this would hold affected him due to overdrive of the grazing land by others, he would hold suffered plot of land others have profited. The other solution could be that if they have divided the land, each one would hold had the privilege to take attention of the land allotted or divided to them and this might hold accounted for true cost, or if they have all cooperated and reciprocally decided to pull off the land, this would hold accounted for true cost, together, ( Hardin, Science 162 ) .Worlds have undergone tonss of passages since centuries ago, from expeditious life to major agricultural revolution followed by Industrial and Post Industrial Revolutions. Prehistoric Societies have contributed to dramatic transmutation of human societies. The manner of life of Human changed as passage took topographic point. Population increase and demand for more nutrient has resulted in alteration in Environment ( Adapted from Brant, E. ( 1995 ) . People allow this happened chiefly for three grounds common fancy 1.1 Picture picturing Prehistoric Societies ( Human Transitions )The ever-growing Human Population somewhat the universe has become one of the major causes of negative impacts on environment. Harmonizing to Economics, it states that human wants are limitless and the resources to run into satisfaction to human stuff wants are scarce. The Malthusian theory clearly explains that while the adult male could increase his subsistence merely in arithmetical patterned advance, his figure tended to increase in geo metric unital patterned advance, ( Malthus, The Essay, p.479 ) . The Population is turning at an dismaying rate while the nutrient to endure the turning population is minimum. Most underdeveloped states in Asia are extremely be and most of the people are below pauperisation line. The sums of nutrient produced are non plenty to run into the demand of huge population, so they import from other industrialised states that produces nutrient at a larger graduated table. Unless the population is non brought down, people particularly in developing states will go on to endure and Population populating below exiguity line will increase. Population growing is therefore regarded as the principal cause of poorness and costless states of Asia and Africa suffer for privation of adequate nutrient to last, while developed states would most volitionally continue to wander new and advanced engineering to bring forth more nutrient expeditiously and this will impact the Environment. So, both rich and hapless states contribute to alloy of Natural resources but in different ways.Fig 1.2 graph demoing illustration of branch of Population and Resources.In modern universe the calamity of parks can associate to Environmental issues such as Sustainability. The common jobs of todays societies are the consequence of assortments of resource jobs. The resources include body of water, land, and non-renewable pushing beginnings such as oil and coal. The most recent illustration of depletion of wood is in the state of Madagascar. astir(predicate) 90 % of the wood is lost in Madagascar, ( CNN intelligence, 25-08-2012 ) . The chief cause of forest depletion is due to uncluttering of wood for agribusiness, and disforestation by forest fire ( slash and burn ) . The people hunt chiropterans in big figure and hence cause hapless pollenation procedure by n atural pollinators. Originally the wood had highest slow-wittedness of forest species but due to over usage it has resulted in drastic loss in forest species. This happened chiefly due to hapless direction and the greed of people and most of the woods are non saved under jurisprudence. All these effects are as a consequence of greed to bring forth more and devour more. The greed of human existences is beyond bound, because there are competitions from all degrees, globally and at the individual degrees. The impulse to go rich and better than others had led to debasement of natural resources.Figure 1.3 Graph demoing theoretical accounts of population growing taking to resource depletion, this can ensue in worsening nutrient production, industrial end product, and population.The planetary economic system uses those limited resources at an dismaying rate for economic development due to stiff competition faced by economic universe. The developed states over use the resources and creates inordinate pollution in the signifier of air, land and H2O. The pollution caused by those states knows no boundary and hence this affects the state that preserve and protects the environment. The impact on environment due to overdrive of natural resources can even be seen today. Most of the states in the universe focal point more on economic development and non on conserving and protecting the Environment. Those few states like Bhutan alternatively of concentrating more on developments puts a batch of enterprise in protecting the environment, but can still experience the affect of pollution, ( climate alteration and immature house consequence ) . Even hapless states focus more on economic development of their state to cut down poorness. The desire for privation of adequate nutrient or to vie with other states economically has about encouraged industrialised states to bring forth more and this has resulted in debasement of resources. Hence, most of the states act in their ain best ego involvements and ignore whats best for the universe.One of the life illustrations of depletion of resources is the Caspian Sea sturgeon delivery and piscaries. Caspian Sea is one of the largest bing Salt lakes in the universe. It is accumulated by 130 rivers changing in coat and the rivers delivers about 79 % of the entire H2O while remainder is in the signifier of Atmospheric hardihood as rain ( 20.2 % ) and land H2O ( 0.8 % .On an Average the Caspian Sea brininess ( incorporating salt ) is equal to 13 ppt. and it was categorized as a brackish H2O organic structure because of presence of unpleasant salt ( Klige and Mayagkov, 1992 ) . The huge Caspian Sea is rich in biodiversity and is place to around 1354 workss and carnal species and 122 fish species. The big staying sum of universe sturgeon ( sea and fresh H2O fish ) are besides in the Caspian sea and estimated 80 % to 90 % of caviar are produced and sold all around the world..At present a sum of 854 carnal species is re corded of which 53 are chiefly marine fish ( 43.5 % ) , 42 are fresh H2O species ( 34.4 % ) , 18 are anadromous species ( 7.4 % ) , ( kazancheyey, 1981 ) . About 25 different species form a group considered as commercially of import fish consisting of straddling stocks and they are distributed all over the Caspian Sea and their piscary requires co-management between member states for sustainable usage in future. However, harmonizing to the official statistics studies released showed that there was monolithic lessening in sturgeon resources from 28.5 thousand metric tons, 1985 to 1345 dozenss in 2005.The Caspian sea sturgeon resources have faced terrible fluctuation during the last century. Maximum sturgeon gizmo inwardly the basin was 39400 metric tons in the beginning of twentieth century, ( Ivanov, et.al,1999 ) . Research conducted by Pourkazemi, 2006 reveals that during 1900 -1915 the mean sturgeon gimmick excepting supplies from Iran was 26.5 1000 metric tons. Sturgeon gimmick s declined drastically to 11000 metric tons during the period between 1920 and 1965, chiefly due to over catching of sturgeon juveniles and immature fish. The ground for rapid diminution was due to illegal fishing and poaching, and was partially recorded during the two universe wars but it was until the prostration of former Soviet Union that led to worsen in the resources due to miss of proper direction and control. In 1992 Commission of Aquatic Bio resources was established chiefly to develop a scheme to utilize and portion the resources rationally and to transport out the joint programme for rescue of the resources. In 1997 all sturgeon species were included into the CITES appendices ( COP-10, Harare ) , and was implemented in 1998. Several other joint programmes were besides developed to measure sturgeon stock, constitution of sturgeon gimmick and export quota and the preservation and proper direction of sturgeon resources. In a mean while several International Organization suc h as UNDP, FAO, European Commission and World Bank developed a regional programme to seek to work out resources state of affairs in the Caspian Sea. Despite all the understandings, ordinance and attempts put by all the regional and International Organizations, the job still remain unresolved and the sturgeon resources still face the hazard of terrible decrease. If the present regional and international strategies to cut sturgeon resources remain unsuccessful without any major betterment, the sturgeon species in the Caspian Sea pose a great menace of extinction in the hereafter.One of the possible solutions to the job is modulating the usage of resources and presenting the outwardnesss. One of the most common economical agencies of modulating a public good is done the infliction of tax income enhancements or levies to those responsible for debasement of natural resources. Examples include emanation and wastewater charges and user fees for waste disposal ( outwardnesss ) . Enforce m ore receipts enhancement on car industries who fail to fabricate pollution control autos. However, such attacks could be viewed negatively and unfavorable judgments will originate on policy shapers as money-raising exercisings. This is particularly the instance when the returns travel heartbeater into general gross alternatively of universe invested in ways to better direction of the resource. Another job with ordinance is that it does non assist to make any permanent consequence in the manner the resource is beingness used. It doesnt alteration peoples behavior. Regardless of what the ordinances are or how they are being imposed, this attack is finally one of irresistible impulse and it relies upon public cooperation or a authorities willing to face sustained rebellion or work stoppage. Without general credence of the basic values behind the ordinance, or a common values system it can non work. Even in Bhutan the revenue enhancement imposed on import of cars from foreign stat es is in immense sum. The gross and imposts office collects revenue enhancements from boundary line town in Phuntsholing and those parts of revenue enhancements decidedly go for direction of Environment. Every twelvemonth all vehicles in Bhutan have to travel through emanation trial and required to pay for the services received. There is frequent look into up on the high manner by Traffic Police and functionaries from Road Safety and Transport Authority and if ground without the emanation trial reception, a mulct will be charged and at some instant it may take to cancellation of vehicle enrollment. The Role of National Commission clearly states that the Agency is responsible to Prevent, control and abates environmental injury, including Pollution, ( Environmental Assessment Act, 2000 ) .Fig 1.4 Picture demoing old theoretical account vehicle providing on route doing pollution on the manner.The 2nd attack, spliting up the parks is into belongings rights. It attempts to maintain the unity O f the parks by curtailing entree to the resource so that it isnt wholly depleted. In add-on it offers a limited group of people the chance for personal addition if they manage the resource right. Its a method that is frequently used to fishing, where bounds are placed on the measures or types of fish allowed to be caught and in land glade, where quotas are set to stipulate how much land could be cleared yearly. It is besides being done through activities such as emanations merchandising. In Bhutan company forestry programme was introduced chiefly to apportion right to resource. Peoples in Bhutan, particularly those populating in rural countries, are largely dependent on forest in their daily activities. Community woodsry direction is introduced chiefly for sustainable usage and to cut down poorness. The Forest and character Conservation Act of Bhutan 1995 emphasized the rural communities in forestry services. It brought major alterations in forest direction by paving the manner for Community and Private Forestry. For the past few old ages at that place has been a enormous addition in the figure of community forest throughout Bhutan, with over 300 community woods and more go oning to set up. The community wood is supported by the National Forest Policy, the Forest and Nature Conservation Act and Rules of the Royal Government of Bhutan.Fig 1.5 Picture demoing Forest in Eastern BhutanThe Uncontrolled human population growing taking to over population is major job behind for development of environments to the extreme. Malthus had written 200 old ages ago that the power of population is indefinitely greater than the power in the Earth to bring forth subsistence to adult male. Population when non controlled tends to increase in nonrepresentational patterned advance. Malthus destiny of humanity is meaningless as the conservationist of today thinks. The efficient usage of resources by modern engineering and its improved medical patterns and the adequate s upply of nutrient have brought down deathrate enormously and accelerated the population growing rate. The Dramatic Increase in population has led to increased production of nutrient, shelter and vesture due to modern engineering. This evidently has led to worsen in bionomics and inordinate loss in bio diverseness. During the last three centuries the population has accelerated at an dismaying rate. The population which took hundred old ages for one billion populations to turn can now take merely 13 old ages for 1 billion populations to turn. Harmonizing statistics study from United Nations, population will duplicate in 2050 and it reveals that in 31st October last twelvemonth in 2011, population has reached 7 billion. An estimated 76 million people are added every twelvemonth and this is truly a serious job. Around 61 % of the population lives in Asia, with highest populated states of China with 1.3 billion and Indias population with 1 billion, 2002 estimation. This already shows tha t Earth can non defy the heavy population any longer. The lone solution is to cut down population by implementing programs and policies. This will enable the sustainable usage of the limited resources left by worlds for centuries. The democracy of China is one of the best illustrations for commanding population. The Growth rate of population in China is merely 0.6 and it has been revealed that in 2050 both China and India will hold an equal population with 1.6 billion each. The one kid policy in China brought down the population growing rate drastically over the old ages, ( www.prb.org, mid, 1999 ) . Jointing solutions to the calamity of the parks is one of the chief jobs of political Philosophy. In absence of enlightened opportunism, some signifier of authorization or federation is needed to work out the corporate action job. In a typical illustration, governmental ordinances can restrict the sum of a common good available for usage by any single. Permit systems for extractive econ omic activities including excavation, fishing, runing, rear animal and timber extraction are illustrations of this attack. Similarly, bounds to pollution are illustrations of governmental intercession. Alternatively, resource users themselves can collaborate to conserve the resource in the name of common benefit. Another solution for some resources is to change over common good into private belongings, giving the new proprietor an inducement to implement its sustainability. This will hold more incentive to take attention of the private land and history for true cost. The cause of depletion of Natural Environment is due to Human Population. The Population is transcending the capacity of the Earth. Developing states in the universe are change magnitude population at an exponential rate and cause poorness, largely in Asian and African Countries. Human as compared to other life species are intelligent and are really good in utilizing resources and able to turn nutrient. However it has developed an pressing demand to increase resources to run into the demand of increase Population. The impulse for privation of more and more nutrient for ingestion had encouraged the maximal usage of the limited resources. Depletion of Non renewable resources had reached its tallness, those resources one time used are gone everlastingly unlike the renewable resources like Air, Water and Land. The unsustainable usage of this resources will one twenty-four hours led to disappearing of the minerals and fossil fuels. Even the renewable resources are used to that extent that its being depleted faster than it can non be renewed. The increasing population uses the resources like neer used earlier because the degree of ingestion has increased drastically over times. The chief state of affairs of today is the inequalities among people and among the Nations. Most developing states have people below poorness line, even without basic necessities ( nutrient, H2O, shelter ) to last and besides t hese people live in hapless health conditions. This poorness state of affairs has allowed the people to concentrate on short-run endurance and these consequences in debasement of natural environment. The impacts on environment are contributed greatly by both developed and developing states. The unquestionable states of Japan, USA, Canada, Australia and other developed states contributes to around 18 % of the universes population but the usage of resources is beyond imaginativeness. Those developed states histories for around 88 % usage of resources around the universe and produces 75 % of the universes waste. The developing states of Asia, Africa and South American portions around 82 % of the universes population and still turning, and this will hold increasing impact on environment. Despite the high and increasing population in hapless states the sum of resource used is merely 12 % and generates waste of merely 25 % . However both rich and hapless have high impact on environment but in different ways ( Miller, G.T and Spool adult male, 2010 ) . Today, universe is stageing many jobs due to impact on environment, but there is no effectual solution to work out these serious jobs. The universe is at the phase of quandary and there is no option left, either to allow increasing population below poorness line to hunger to decease or utilize the resources left and so confront the effects. Peoples know what the consequence it will take to and the dismaying rate of population growing will be expected to duplicate in 2050 and the force per unit area on resources is increasing excessively. However on positive side engineering is progressing fast to undertake with societal and environmental jobs and it has proven over the old ages. Whatever the effects it could take to, merely clip will state, for the minute merely delay and mettle where these present human action will take to. Nothing is impossible and there is ever a solution for everything. Necessity is mother of i nnovations, Esther Bosrup